However, we have also demonstrated a significant variability in the effect of biochar, which can likely be attributed, in part, to the diverse application rates and physicochemical properties of biochars52. For the Bayesian approach, we used weakly informative prior scenarios, following the recommendations of Williams, Rast, and Brkner (2018)79. Nutrient storage and recycling. The dot sizes are proportional to the number of paired data analyzed. 284, 106569 (2019). Publishers note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. However, it is essential to exercise caution when implementing these results in local contexts. CO2 enrichment, on the contrary, had a significant effect on SOC for two of the four land-use types analyzed, and a mean effect of +4.3%, CI [+3.5, +5.2], across all land-use types. Change Biol. Stemming from strong political will and backed by the private sector, non-governmental organizations, scientists and practitioners, this campaign aims to build a new global momentum around the core ambition of ecosystem restoration at regional, national and global scales. Ecological restoration should ideally be viewed as reciprocal: a mutually beneficial relationship. Brkner, P.-C. brms: An R package for bayesian multilevel models using stan. There are parallels between the lagging global efforts to address both the COVID-19 pandemic and the climate crisis, experts assert. Friedlingstein, P. et al. We also extracted the metrics (e.g., ratio, percentage change), possible transformations (e.g., logarithm), confidence intervals or other indicators of variability, and the number of primary studies and observations that were used to calculate the effect sizes. One recent study focusing on the consequences of indiscriminate deforestation, for example, suggests we have a less than 10% probability of surviving the next 20-40 years without facing a catastrophic collapse if we remain on our current trajectory. California State Parks provides for the health, inspiration and education of the people of California by helping to preserve the states extraordinary biological diversity, protecting its most valued natural and cultural resources, and creating Walking through nature also improves cognitive function and memory. Mitig. From an economic perspective, it is estimated that $10 trillion in global GDP could be lost by 2050 if ecosystem services continue to decline. 4). Biochar in climate change mitigation. 1). Land-use change is a major SOC driver at the global scale17,18. Towards a global-scale soil climate mitigation strategy. Bringing nature into cities is as much about people as it is about nature. Google Scholar. Available at https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment, 3 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Biochar led to a meanSOC gain of +67%, CI [+31, +112] in croplands and +32%, CI [+26, +38] in grasslands. Sustain. All of these efforts demonstrate how the international community is working to ensure positive outcomes for people and nature at the same time, and everyone has a role to play. Glob. Protect, manage and then restore lands for climate mitigation. 73, e13133 (2022). However, it is widely acknowledged that ecosystem restoration often fails to fully recover the functions of the undisturbed ecosystems51,52, including soil carbon sequestration53. PubMed Central And, overarchingly, the Decade of Action for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) compels us to deliver on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the full breadth of SDGs. LaganiRe, J. Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Digging deeper for agricultural resources, the value of deep rooting. Metrics Abstract Traditional fermented foods are of major importance with respect to the socio-economic growth, food security, nutrition, and health of African consumers. 70, 5673 (2010). USEPA Environmental-Protection-Agency via Wikimedia Commons, Recovering pelicans, Alabama, United States, 2011. (Island Press, 2020). To combat these emerging global conditions and protect the lives of future generations, we need to protect and restore our habitats and biodiversity. 12, 2501 (2021). Our food systems depend on healthy soils. the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Science 363, 933934 (2019). Agroforestry significantly increased SOC in croplands by +20%, CI [+17, +23]. Goldstein, A. et al. Mansoor, S. et al. (2020). Sci. Walker, W. S. et al. These benefits can greatly improve performance in school. Ecol. A global meta-analysis of soil organic carbon in the Anthropocene, $$\log ({Y}_{{ij}})=\mu+{b}_{i}+{\varphi }_{{ij}}+{\varepsilon }_{{ij}}$$, \(\,{\varphi }_{{ij}} \sim N\left(0,\,{\upsilon }^{2}\right)\), \({\varepsilon }_{{ij}} \sim N\left(0,\,{{\sigma }_{{ij}}}^{2}\right)\), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39338-z. The mental and attention restoration achieved from walking in nature can improve performance on tasks in school and at work.Exercising in nature leads to greater health benefits than performing the same activity indoors. Similarly, organic agriculture involves varying degrees of organic amendments and crop diversification, among other practices. Stat. Clik here to find out the answers to these questions! Sustainability in action. Details of the information used to make this graph as well as details by sub-category of land management are available at https://rpubs.com/dbeillouin/Figure3. PubMed Central The main benefit of a conservation easement (aside from protecting the land!) Temporal dynamics of soil organic carbon after land-use change in the temperate zone - carbon response functions as a model approach: soil organic carbon and land-use change. Description of Additional Supplementary Files, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Cancel Glob. CAS Veldkamp, E., Schmidt, M., Powers, J. S. & Corre, M. D. Deforestation and reforestation impacts on soils in the tropics. Soil quality: a critical review. This would allow to refine our understanding of the mechanisms controlling SOC dynamics and develop more accurate projections of SOC changes in response to global climate change. Change Biol. SACRAMENTO, Calif. California State Parks, and its Divisions of Boating and Waterways and Off-Highway Motor Vehicle Recreation, invites Californians and visitors from around the world to recreate responsibly this Fourth of July weekend, one of the busiest outdoor holidays of the year. 17, 16581670 (2011). The funnel plots assume that studies with high precision will be plotted near the average mean effect, and studies with low precision will be spread evenly on both sides. Nat. Soil Sci. This depends on Exercising in nature leads to greater health benefits than performing the same activity indoors. The conversion of natural ecosystems to agricultural land is estimated to have resulted in a carbon debt of 116 Gt in the top 2m soil layer19. Res. Glob. J. Stat. & Hungate, B. Livestock enclosures in drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa are overlooked hotspots of N2O emissions. 53, 207216 (2000). 54, 13951405 (2017). Clim. Lessmann, M., Ros, G. H., Young, M. D. & Vries, W. Global variation in soil carbon sequestration potential through improved cropland management. 1). In case a meta-analysis presented subgroup analyses, only independent effect sizes, i.e., based on different sets of primary studies, were retained. Ecosystem degradation is a global phenomenon. A healthy environment provides nutrients that flow up the food chain, from plants to animals, to provide energy. These indirect effects associated with climate change should not be overlooked, given that, for instance, the occurrence of forest fires has doubled in the last 40 years68, and has notably increased in many biomes69. Wildlife preserves are essential to protecting our natural world's diverse species of flora and Google Scholar. This effect can likely be associated with the presence of CO2 enrichment in the majority of the examined combinations. By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. Now, new tools are available to gauge the worth of nature and its many benefits to people, enabling governments and other decision-makers to consider Earths natural capital alongside its Several other land management practices showed smaller but significant positive changes in SOC, including no-till farming (+9,3%, CI [+5,6, +13]; see the online interactive Table associated to Fig. Southern white rhinos in Africa are considered near threatened; black rhinos are critically endangered. Cardinael, R. et al. Afforestation of cropland can partially restore these stocks21, yet SOC restoration is generally slower than depletion. Here, we WebNatural Resources. The sizes of land-use pictograms are proportional to their respective mean SOC stock values (t ha1), as provided by FAO and ITPS (2020)83. Plant Cell Environ. Studies show social, health, economic, and environmental benefits. We need healthy and productive ecosystems to benefit from the multiple environmental, economic and social benefits they provide. Cook-Patton, S. C. et al. 188, 4152 (2019). Copyright 2023 State of Indiana - All rights reserved. Preserving nature is important because the biodiversity of the planet, including the human race, is dependent upon properly functioning natural processes. MathSciNet J. Environ. Importantly, nature connectedness can increase over time through frequent nature engagement. Such efforts align directly with the ambition and vision of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, set to run until 2030. They also remove toxins from the soil and help to reduce noise pollution. Earth Syst. 37, 14 (2017). Ecosyst. A global overview of studies about land management, landuse change, and climate change effects on soil organic carbon. One third of commercial fish stocks are now overfished,3 which threatens the livelihoods of over 60 million fishers globally.4Furthermore, an estimated 1.4 billion livelihoods, ranging from food and drinks to energy and water, are directly reliant on access to fresh water.5. Ecosyst. However, these ecosystems and their ability to deliver these ecosystem services are being damaged, degraded and destroyed, which directly impacts people and nature. Global carbon budget 2020. Sci. Contribution to climate stability. Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T. & Rothstein, H. R. Introduction to Meta-Analysis. Change 10, 287295 (2020). Trials 45, 123129 (2015). In addition, biodiversity loss could be making us sick. Web43 likes, 20 comments - @infolombaonline.id on Instagram: "[OPEN REGISTRATION NUTRITION SHOW (NUTRISHOW) INTERNATIONAL WEBINAR 2023] UPN Veteran " Land Degrad. Ecosyst. 202035, Young et al. CAS 80, 128 (2017). Softw. Eur. All statistical analyses were conducted with R software (version 3.0.2), dplyr for data management, and ggplot2 for data visualization. Today our remaining natural areas serve important roles in the study of a number of areas, including: Preservation of natural areas also provides many practical benefits. Ramesh, T. et al. Comparisons of the model results between the frequentist and Bayesian approach are available in Fig. This results in total deductions of $480,000. & Gabry, J. Environ. 13, 124020 (2018). Change Biol. With so many of our natural areas now gone, those that remain are a vital link to the past - the roots of our natural heritage. Nat. There is no doubt this is an ambitious plan. Of the 60 types of land-use change analyzed, 25% presented a decrease in SOC that was greater than 24%, while another 25% showed an increase that was higher than 15%. Other indirect effects of climate change, such as the effect of flooding and changes in snow cover, have thus far received limited attention in existing meta-analyses, and there is a lack of synthesized results on these subjects. 4). A review of tillage practices and their potential to impact the soil carbon dynamics. All the effect sizes of the 230 meta-analyses included in our study were then extracted from the text, tables, or figures (using Plot Digitizer http://plotdigitizer.sourceforge.net/) and recorded in an Excel file. A peer review file is available. On the other hand, enhanced soil health and plant productivity resulting from organic amendments can further increase carbon inputsfrom plant growth and reinforce the positive effects on SOC. Biogeosciences 18, 39814004 (2021). WebThe quiet enjoyment of nature soothes the monotony in our daily lives whether from skyscrapers and pavement or unbroken horizons of corn and beans. These diverse ecosystems and their species provide us with a range of essential ecosystem servicesfrom biodiversity and climate change adaptation and mitigation, to support for our economies, health and security. Thornton, A. The arrows represent the effect of a land-use change on SOC, with the final land-use on the arrowhead side. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en, 5United Nations, Sustainable Development Goal 6 Synthesis Report 2018 on Water and Sanitation. Correspondence to Article A 30-minute visit to a park can improve heart health, circulation and lower cholesterol, blood glucose, and blood pressure. The preservation of SOC can be effectively achieved through the protection of natural ecosystems and the introduction of perennial crops in croplands. Pollution breakdown and absorption. Clim. 44, 347355 (2021). Frequent exposure to nature reduces anxiety and depression, while promoting a sense of wellbeing and fulfillment. According to the World Economic Forum, around one in ten people across the globe works in the tourism industry, and around 1.4 billion tourists travel internationally every year. Faster decomposition under increased atmospheric CO 2 limits soil carbon storage. Living within 1/2 mile of a green J. Lal, R. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Bruni, E. et al. Without a healthy natural environment, most life would cease to exist, according to Mother Nature Network. A 30-minute visit to a park can improve heart health, circulation and lower cholesterol, blood glucose, and blood pressure. Article Cite this article. PubMed United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, To enable global transformation to a sustainable future, the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) provides strategic leadership, technical expertise and evidence-based support to our partners on effective ecosystem restoration and species recovery. Our food systems depend on healthy soils. Achieving global net zero CO2 emissions by 2050 is crucial for limiting global warming to 1.5C by the end of the century10. An asterisk indicates a significant effect. We aim to support the global community through legal, policy and planning frameworks that can scale-up efficient action to achieve restoration ambitions at local to global scales; support and deliver an accessible knowledge base allowing planners and practitioners to prioritize effective restoration efforts that deliver measurable, long-term environmental, social and economic benefits; and support monitoring to track and incentivize effective global restoration efforts and enhance adaptive management. Organic amendments applied in croplands resulted in a SOC gain of +29%, CI [+15, +45], and +34%, CI [+21, +48] in grasslands (Fig. WebNature conservation is the moral philosophy and conservation movement focused on protecting species from extinction, maintaining and restoring habitats, enhancing ecosystem services, and protecting biological diversity.A range of values underlie conservation, which can be guided by biocentrism, anthropocentrism, ecocentrism, and sentientism, The degree of SOC loss following land conversion to croplands varied depending on the type of cropping system established, with lower SOC losses observed after forest conversion to croplands cultivated under agroforestry practices (12%, CI [19, 4.9]), or with perennial crops (7.2%, CI [18, +4.3]), compared to those cultivated with annual crops (32%, CI [38, 24]). Beillouin, D. MetaSynthesis: An R package to perform second-order meta-analysis. It also allows for a more rigorous critical analysis, if the quality of the first-order meta-analyses is considered. contracts here. Jake M. Robinson (@_jake_robinson) receives funding for his PhD from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). Change 165, 43 (2021). Preserve Cultural Heritage 3. We protect and manage the fish, forest, and wildlife of the state. Poeplau, C. & Don, A. IPCC 2019. Here, we conducted a second-order meta-analysis that included over 220 specific drivers of SOC change, representing the direct and indirect effects of human interventions including land-use change (e.g., conversion of forest to cropland), land management (e.g., mineral fertilization), and climate change (e.g., warming). In addition to joining an active community of preservation supporters and advocates, members are offered unlimited access to all open houses. Finally, the conversion of forest lands to grasslands and the conversion of grasslands to forest lands did not lead to significant SOC changes (15%, CI [28, +1.4], and +1.3% CI [6.4, +9.6], respectively). Science 304, 16231627 (2004). Adapt. Importance of Conservation of Natural Resources 1. Anthropogenic activities profoundly impact soil organic carbon (SOC), affecting its contribution to ecosystem services such as climate regulation. MATH A review. Article This is evidenced by the increasing numbers of people who turn to our parks, forests and nature preserves in order to escape the hustle-bustle of our fast paced society. Butterbach-Bahl, K. et al. Certainly, one of the most important benefits to be derived from natural areas is the recreational benefit they provide. S1 for details) on croplands, forest lands, grasslands, wetlands, and other lands. 120, 105125 (2018). A poor methodology used to retrieve the primary studies and analyze the data can indeed result in biased and misleading results71. This is a good step, but as UN Deputy Secretary-General Amina Mohammed noted at the event, to rescue the planets fragile tapestry of life, we need vastly more ambition and action. ADS Global Soil Organic Carbon Map (GSOCmap). Ecological restoration can help to sustain the rich diversity of human cultures on our planet by supporting relationships between humans and the environment that are mutually advantageous. The number of paired data (n) for each category ofland-use type is shown in the bubbles on the right side of the plot. On the other hand, the scarcity of biomass in some regions or its competition with livestock feeding, particularly in sub-Sahara African countries56, can hamper the large-scale production of biochar. Ecology 92, 20492055 (2011). & Angers, D. A. Restoring our emotional connection to nature (known as nature connectedness) is therefore important. space decreases mental distress and anxiety, while boosting heart and metabolic health. Importance of Conservation of Natural Resources 1. Psychol. Check Elk/Bear Permit Application Results, Managing Invasive Species in Your Community, Community Conservation Funding Opportunities, Resources for Community Leaders and Developers, Improves mood, concentration, and self-discipline, Cools, reducing heat stress and heat-related illnesses, Filters air pollutants, reducing colds and asthma, Improves air quality (and improves health), Leads to new training and employment opportunities, Attracts investment and invigorates local economies. These are essential to reverse the ecological and climate crises we face. (2023). On the meta-analysis of response ratios for studies with correlated and multi-group designs. The global community, and national policymakers in particular, need to adopt a multifaceted One Health approach that views human, plant and animal health as intertwined and codependent. Micro-, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) are engines of economic growth and employment, accounting for 90 per cent of businesses, up to 70 per cent of all jobs and 50 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) at the global level. The findings ofour study provide strong evidence to assist decision-makers in safeguarding SOC stocks and promoting land management practices for SOC restoration. Eur. Climate extremes and the carbon cycle. Lett. Further details on the methods used can be found in a related data paper34 and in an evidence map33. Article Walking in nature reduces inflammation Increasing soil carbon storage: mechanisms, effects of agricultural practices and proxies. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Lehmann, J. et al. 16, 439453 (2010). Increased soil organic carbon stocks under agroforestry: a survey of six different sites in France. Cardinael, R. et al. A.F. Williams, D. R., Rast, P. & Brkner, P.-C. Bayesian Meta-Analysis with Weakly Informative Prior Distributions. Notes, 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), The State of the Worlds Forests 2020. Am. Moreover, it is a key contributor to the global carbon cycle and climate regulation5. in Advances in Agronomy 156 1107 (Elsevier, 2019). PubMed The land-use type associated with each effect size was documented according to IPCC standards70. Check out these pathways to achieving a closer connection with nature. Griscom, B. W. et al. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the articles Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Clearly, the endorsement and recommendation of NE is deeply rooted historically and cross-culturally [7]. Vehtari, A., Gelman, A. The list of primary studies (and their DOIs, when available) used in each meta-analysis was retrieved, thereby allowing us to identify the number of common primary studies between each pair of meta-analyses. PubMed Making trees count: Measurement and reporting of agroforestry in UNFCCC national communications of non-Annex I countries. Just 20 minutes in nature improves concentration and reduces the need for ADHD and ADD medications in children. Interestingly, replacing a monospecific forest with a mixture of tree species resulted in a significant 9.0% SOC increase (CI [+5.4, +12.7]). Clean water is necessary for all living things. For example, climate change simultaneously affects SOC input through its effect on both plant biomass production and SOC decomposition, i.e., warming can lead to increased plant biomass, but it can also enhance decomposition;14 elevated CO2 levels can stimulate plant growth while it is expected that they have a minimal effect on SOC decomposition67. 95, 8998 (2000). Sci. F.F. Protecting the rights and livelihoods of indigenous peoples and supporting indigenous research leadership has an important role to play in this process. Poeplau, C. et al. Trees absorb airborne pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. After applying the meta-analytical models (see below), we transformed the log ratios and their associated confidence intervals and expressed them in percent change to facilitate interpretation. ADS Finally, climate change can also have a significant negative impact on global SOC stocks, by increasing SOC mineralization due to higher temperatures29, or by decreasing carbon inputs to the soil as a result of less favorable plant growth conditions linked to more variable and extreme weather events30. The best Bayesian model for each factor was chosen based on the wAIC81. Oldfield, E. E., Bradford, M. A. The best model for each factor (whose results are presented in the main text) was then chosen based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC). Preserve Species Diversity 2. Climate change has lessons for fighting the coronavirus. At a UN summit this September, more than 70 world leaders bar those from the US, China or Brazil signed the Leaders Pledge for Nature, promising to clamp down on pollution, eliminate the dumping of plastic waste and strengthen environmental agreements worldwide. Elevation in wildfire frequencies with respect to the climate change. From forests to farmlands, mountains to oceans, our ecosystems, both modified and natural, provide multiple environmental, economic and social benefits for people and for nature. This is also a key year for several other pivotal International Decade campaigns aimed at supporting the recovery of species and ecosystems. Importantly,wetlands showed the largest decrease in SOC across all land-use types in response to management interventions (i.e., up to 60% for practices that lead to wetland degradation). Fanin, N. et al. Google Scholar. SOC preservation and restoration alone can contribute up to 25% of the potential of natural climate solutions, with 40% of this potential coming from SOC preservation and 60% from the restoration of depleted SOC stocks16. Glob. University of Sheffield provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation UK. Want to see the evidence? The revival of plants, crops and forests depends on the revival of degraded soils. The full text of the retained papers was then independently reviewed by at least two co-authors of this study for the following criteria. The most complex model is a three-level meta-analytical model, including a variancecovariance matrix considering the precision, the quality and the redundancy of the first-order meta-analyses. Copyright 20102023, The Conversation US, Inc. Fungi provide essential ecosystem services, yet are also on the decline. Doi, S. A. R., Barendregt, J. J., Khan, S., Thalib, L. & Williams, G. M. Advances in the meta-analysis of heterogeneous clinical trials II: the quality effects model. Children who walk 20 minutes in a park concentrate inschool longer and have better participation. Rev. Xu, S., Sheng, C. & Tian, C. Changing soil carbon: influencing factors, sequestration strategy and research direction. Sci. The restoration of ecosystems is intrinsically linked to the restoration of human health. Additional carbon inputs to reach a 4 per 1000 objective in Europe: feasibility and projected impacts of climate change based on Century simulations of long-term arable experiments. ADS 62, 4255 (2011). M.C. The model results were summarized by the median as a point estimate and the 95% confidence interval as a measure of uncertainty of the point estimate. In summary, our comprehensive second-order meta-analysis, encompassing over 220 types of land-use change, land management practices, and climate change factors impacting SOC, has identified both the main factors associated with SOC loss and various options that have the potential to maintain or increase SOC levels on a global scale. The food and agriculture value chain has a chance to create a more sustainable ecosystem that feeds a growing planet while maintaining the livelihoods of farmers. Bowman, D. M. J. S., Williamson, G. J., Price, O. F., Ndalila, M. N. & Bradstock, R. A. Australian forests, megafires and the risk of dwindling carbon stocks. Natl. It is recognised that this constitutes a crisis. Article This model is written as follows: with \({b}_{i} \sim N(0,\,{\tau }^{2})\),\(\,{\varphi }_{{ij}} \sim N\left(0,\,{\upsilon }^{2}\right)\) and \({\varepsilon }_{{ij}} \sim N\left(0,\,{{\sigma }_{{ij}}}^{2}\right)\),where \({Y}_{{ij}}\) is the jth effect-size of the ith meta-analysis (one meta-analysis could present several effect-sizes), \(\mu\) is the mean estimated effect (shown as the diamonds in the Figures),\(\,{b}_{i}\) is the random meta-analysis effect (i.e., between-cluster heterogeneity),\(\,{\varphi }_{{ij}}\) is the random effect size effect within the ith meta-analysis (i.e., within-cluster heterogeneity), and \({\varepsilon }_{{ij}}\) is the random estimation error associated with the jth effect size of the ith meta-analysis (i.e., the sampling error). It is worth noting that other types of crop diversification had limited effects on SOC in croplands. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. These characteristics make them more conducive to increase SOC compared to annual crops. Mehra, P. et al. Put 5, 212222 (2016). WebBenefits of Nature. The food and agriculture value chain has a chance to create a more sustainable ecosystem that feeds a growing planet while maintaining the livelihoods of was provided through the CGIAR initiative Mitigate+: Research for Low-Emission Food Systems, and through the contributions of all funders to the CGIAR Trust Fund. Science 344, 508509 (2014). For example, natural areas contain the biological raw material necessary for the development of products that could greatly benefit the health, diversity and genetic well-being of man. Duval, S. & Tweedie, R. A nonparametric trim and fill method of accounting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Diamonds and lines represent the estimated mean effect sizesand the 95% confidence intervals (CIs), respectively. Soil Biol. Natl. Land management is another crucial driver of SOC change, and several agricultural practices such as manure application22, no-till farming23,24, cover cropping25 and agroforestry26,27 have been proposed to increase SOC stocks28. 202037 on the effects of some specific land-use interventions on SOC). In grasslands, increased intensity of grazing (9.9%, CI [18, 0.5]) and the presence of grazing compared to no grazing (7.1%, CI [31, 3.9]) had negative impacts on SOC. Using second-order meta-analysis, we synthesized findings from 230 first-order meta-analyses comprising over 25,000 primary studies. On the other hand, the direct effects of climate change (i.e., warming, drought, and CO2 enrichment) were relatively small, as indicated by the 25th and 75th percentiles of respectively 2.4% and +4.0% SOC change.
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