diseases caused by mycotoxinsdiseases caused by mycotoxins

While the legal acts governing the cultivation of organic raw materials prohibit the use of these products, environmental pollution can occur in both conventional and organic foodstuffs [111]. They were also present in all maize and TMR silage samples. "[43], Mycotoxicosis is the term used for poisoning associated with exposures to mycotoxins. The mycotoxin contamination profiles showed significant differences between pseudocereals and cereals, even when harvested from the same regions. [25] Testing for mycotoxicosis can be conducted using immunoaffinity columns. Diseases caused by mycotoxins are called mycotoxicosis [17]. Occurrence, toxicity, and analysis of major mycotoxins in food. The food contaminant, deoxynivalenol, modulates the Thelper/Treg balance and increases inflammatory bowel diseases. [9], Aflatoxins are a type of mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus species of fungi, such as A. flavus and A. Control of Aspergillus carbonarius in grape berries by Lactobacillus plantarum: A phenotypic and gene transcription study. OTAs are found in many foods such as maize seeds, wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, flour, coffee, cocoa, legumes. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that could cause toxic responses when ingested by animals. Leiva A., Mndez G., Rodriguez C., Molina A., Granados-Chinchilla F. Chemical assessment of mycotoxin contaminants and veterinary residues in Costa Rican animal feed. Mange is a common skin infection caused by a parasitic mite. The U.N. Depending on the damaged organ, mycotoxins can be divided into: In addition, there are also a different classification of mycotoxins: Different classes of aflatoxins (AF), such as B1, B2, G1, and G2 can be recognized. Apart from humans, animals can also be exposed to microbiological hazards. It also inhibits RNA and DNA synthesis [33]. Zoch M., Rogowska A., Pomastowski P., Railean-Plugaru V., Walczak-Skierska J., Rudnicka J., Buszewski B. Acute exposure can cause leukocytosis, hemorrhage, and, with extremely high exposure, even death. Moreover, all other samples were contaminated with at least three different types of mold secondary metabolites. Therefore, this mycotoxin not only pose a serious threat to human and animal health, but also affects food safety and limits animal production [57]. Cleveland T.E., Dowd P.F., Desjardins A.E., Bhatnagar D., Cotty P.J. Comparative study of mycotoxin occurrence in Andean and cereal grains cultivated in South America and North Europe. There is still a lack of sufficient surveillance data on some mycotoxins that occur in the U.S.[52]. nat. Possible health effects associated with fungi generally fall into the category infections (mycosis), allergic reactions, or toxic [28] Complicated interactions between bio-adsorbents and mycotoxins during mycotoxin adsorption: Current research and future prospects. Pauletto M., Giantin M., Tolosi R., Bassan I., Barbarossa A., Zaghini A., Dacasto M. Discovering the protective effects of resveratrol on aflatoxin B1-induced toxicity: A whole transcriptomic study in a bovine hepatocyte cell line. Mycotoxicoses are diseases caused by mycotoxins, i.e. Deoxynivalenol as potential modulator of human steroidogenesis. Other types of toxic mold, including Aspergillus flavus, can form dangerous A concise history of mycotoxin research. Many mycotoxins can be present in food, together with mold fungi, increasing the exposure of humans and animals to them. Impact of beer production process on mycotoxin contamination. ZEN levels were higher in the liver (30.0%) than in the kidney samples (8.0%). It was also shown that higher levels of OTA were associated with exposure to smoking (environmental, maternal smoking). It was shown that introducing a mixture of zeolite and bee brood into the diet of broiler chickens had a significant positive effect on the increase in live weight and blood parameters, reducing the negative effect of mycotoxins. ; formal analysis, J.K.-P. and W.B. The concentrations experienced in a normal home, office, or school are often too low to trigger a health response in occupants. Factors influencing the A mycotoxin (from the Greek mykes, "fungus" and toxikos, "poisonous")[1][2] is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by fungi[3][4] and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. It has been shown that mycotoxins present in food can lead to a reduction in food consumption and have a negative impact on animal health [86,87,88]. One of the paradoxes related to the toxicity of FB in animals concern the toxicokinetics of FB at the onset of mycotoxicosis. Mycotoxins are substances that are difficult to monitor continuously and a universal risk assessment tool would help to assess if there is a particular risk due to the inclusion of certain feed ingredients. An official website of the United States government. [35] In a 2015 analysis of plant-based dietary supplements, the highest mycotoxin concentrations were found in milk thistle-based supplements, at up to 37mg/kg. Every day, both humans and animals are exposed to low-doses of mycotoxins [5,6,7]. The problem may be chronic exposure to mycotoxins and their modified forms. In this context, fruit decay can be directly attributed to phytopathogenic and/or mycotoxin-producing fungi. Luo Y., Liu X., Yuan L., Li J. Freire L., SantAna A. These basic forms of mycotoxins can be converted into metabolites with altered chemical structures and different physicochemical, chemical, and biological properties. Lappa I.K., Mparampouti S., Lanza B., Panagou E.Z. Bocianowski J., Szulc P., Wakiewicz A., Cyplik A. An example is green tea leaves, the infusion of which is one of the most consumed beverages in the world. The research also confirms the ability of bacteria belonging to the species L. salivarius, L. delbrueckii subsp. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. The soil is the main reservoir of spores for the fungi of the genus Fusarium. They lead to economic losses and, in addition, theycause a wide variety of diseases for people and animals. Sometimes they can be the cause of death. As far as mycotoxins are concerned, milk, eggs, and meat do not constitute the main threat to human and animal health and life from the literature data. fred.fung@sharp.com PMID: 15214629 DOI: 10.1081/clt-120030947 Abstract Diseases caused by fungi are spread by direct implantation or inhalation of It has been shown that infants and children are most susceptible to DON infestation [46]. Its chronic presence in food products supplied to the body contributes to the formation of liver cancer [20]. The resulting data of several studies have thus far demonstrated that common exposures to airborne mycotoxins in the built indoor environment are below the CoNTC, however agricultural environments have potential to produce levels greater than the CoNTC.[27]. A synergistic effect between mycotoxin exposure and some important diseases in the continent such as malaria, kwashiorkor and HIV/AIDS have been suggested. It is therefore necessary to set specific maximum levels for several mycotoxins in fish feed [99]. In terms of chemical structure, they are divided into four groups: A, B, C, and D. The type-A trichothecenes (T-2 and HT-2 toxins, diacetoxyscirpenol) have a functional group other than a ketone at carbon position 8. Humpf H.U., Rychlik M., Cramer B. Fungi-induced postharvest diseases are the leading causes of food loss and waste. ; writingreview and editing, J.K.-P. and W.B. Moreover, data are still scare and unevenly reported, despite increased awareness of the contribution of modified forms to the toxicity of mycotoxins. OTA causes a dangerous disease called Balkan endemic nephropathy [37,38]. The results of the research by Okuma et al. Masked mycotoxins may not be detected during analyses due to altered physicochemical properties of their molecules [61]. FBs impair the functioning of the kidneys. Stoyanov G.S., Kobakova I., Petkova L., Dzhenkov D.L., Popov H. Balkan Endemic Nephropathy: An autopsy case report. Therefore, in connection with the above information, it is worth paying attention to the content of home garbage cans and garden composters. Among the mycotoxins known so far, AF has the strongest carcinogenic effect. Braun D., Eiser M., Puntscher H., Marko D., Warth B. McCormick S.P., Stanley A.M., Stover N.A., Alexander N.J. Trichothecenes: From simple to complex mycotoxins. Development and characterisation of a monoclonal antibody to detect the mycotoxin roquefortine C. Gonzlez N., Marqus M., Nadal M., Domingo J.L. ; investigation, J.K.-P. and W.B. Adapted from [83]. Yang R., Wang Y.M., Zhang L., Zhao Z.M., Zhao J., Peng S.Q. A total of 101 analytes at different levels were detected, mainly produced by fungi of the genera Penicillium spp., Fusarium spp. The public health problem caused by mycotoxins contamination has received a great deal of attention worldwide. Their clinical features, target organs, and outcome depend on the intrinsic toxic features of the mycotoxin and the quantity and length of exposure, as well as the health status of the exposed person. Even temperature treatments, such as cooking and freezing, do not destroy some mycotoxins.[46]. AFB1 has been shown to have a strong hepatotoxic effect, but it can be minimized, for example, by supplementing the food with curcumin [94]. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the [23] Stachybotrys chartarum contains a higher number of mycotoxins than other molds grown in the indoor environment and has been associated with allergies and respiratory inflammation. Depending on the dose, symptoms such as increased uterine weight and the number of antral follicles in an ovary have been observed in rats [52,53]. Moreover, studies have shown that a high percentage of pet food samples are contaminated with more than one mycotoxin [92]. [7], Most fungi are aerobic (use oxygen) and are found almost everywhere in extremely small quantities due to the diminute size of their spores. The sources of zearalenone (ZEN) are fungi of the genus Fusarium, often found in maize, wheat, barley, and other cereals [48]. Mycotoxins produced by filamentous fungi widely distributed in foodstuffs can cause adverse impacts on humans and livestock, posing serious health threats. [48] The process of assessing a regulated mycotoxin involves a wide array of in-laboratory testing that includes extracting, clean-up columns[49] and separation techniques. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified AFB1 as group I due to its high toxicity, teratogenicity, hepatocarcinogenicity, and mutagenicity. Web1Sharp Rees-Stealy Medical Group, San Diego University of California, San Diego, California 92101, USA. In addition, the presence of mycotoxins in edible animal products, such as milk, meat, and eggs, is possible, which may have long-term negative health effects on humans [90,91]. It has been shown that in the case of dry animal food, the extrusion process can reduce the pathogenicity of microorganisms without affecting the digestibility of the food [97]. [(accessed on 3 September 2021)]. Semenov E.I., Mishina N.N., Saitov V.R., Perfilova K.V., Kashevarov G.S., Tanaseva S.A., Idiyatov I.I., Tarasova E.Y., Matrosova L.E., Shlyamina O.V., et al. In general, pseudocereals from South America were less contaminated with mycotoxins than those from Northern Europe, while the opposite was true for cereals. One of the key approaches to protecting the body from oxidative damage is to incorporate natural antioxidants into the daily diet [73]. Guideline limit values for deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and ochratoxin A in pet products. These diseases cause adverse health effects in the body and eventually lead to death if untreated. The most important groups of mycotoxins in terms of their toxicity and occurrence are presented. Chronic exposure to the Fusarium mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol: Impact on performance, immune organ, and intestinal integrity of slow-growing chickens. A disease caused by mycotoxins is called mycotoxicosis. ZEN has a destructive effect on hormonal balance [51]. A mycotoxin (from the Greek mykes, "fungus" and toxikos, "poisonous") is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by fungi and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. The main ingredient of veterinary therapeutic diets (VTD) is grain. Most of the plant diseases are caused by F. solani, F. oxysporum and F. graminearum. In Europe, statutory levels of a range of mycotoxins permitted in food and animal feed are set by a range of European directives and EC regulations. Mycotoxicosis is a disease condition that occurs due to poisoning with mycotoxins. The most important mycotoxin from this group is ochratoxin A (OTA) [20]. As a result of their complex and variable chemical structure and ubiquitous presence, humans and animals may potentially be exposed to one or more mycotoxins or their forms modified by eating a contaminated diet. Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of fungal infection of crops, either by being eaten directly by humans or by being used as livestock feed. Pigowski M. Comparative analysis of notifications regarding mycotoxins in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF). ; validation, J.K.-P. and W.B. These mycotoxins can induce acute and chronic health effects in humans through skin contact, ingestion, and inhalation. ; funding acquisition, J.K.-P. and W.B. Twaruek M., Skrzydlewski P., Kosicki R., Grajewski J. Mycotoxins survey in feed materials and feedingstuffs in years 20152020. The site is secure. Ochratoxin A production by strains of Experimental one-year ochratoxin A toxicosis in pigs. [15], Mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition or being broken down in digestion, so they remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products. It has been shown that, in the case of cereals, most of the impurities are close to the grain surface. Bayesian network (BN) modeling is one of the widespread machine learning modeling techniques, and can deal very well with both unbalanced data and missing data. Pleadin J., Staver M.M., Markov K., Frece J., Zadravec M., Jaki V., Krupi I., Vahi N. Mycotoxins in organic and conventional cereals and cereal products grown and marketed in Croatia. [12] Aspergillus ochraceus is found as a contaminant of a wide range of commodities including beverages such as beer and wine. The resulting compounds may be even more toxic as long as their bioavailability is greater than that of the parent mycotoxin. However, these results reiterated the need for further research into the potential risk of chronic low-dose exposure to various types of mycotoxins to which pet species are currently exposed [81]. It has been shown that not only AF is effectively cleared by lactic acid bacteria. Santos Pereira C.C., Cunha S., Fernandes J.O. When gypsum board has been repeatedly introduced to moisture, S. chartarum grows readily on its cellulose face. ; project administration, J.K.-P. and W.B. Sadiq F.A., Yan B., Tian F., Zhao J., Zhang H., Chen W. Lactic acid bacteria as antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic agents: A comprehensive review. Dried fruits are also characterized by high OTA content. The ingestion of ergot sclerotia from infected cereals, commonly in the form of bread produced from contaminated flour, causes ergotism, the human disease historically known as St. Anthony's Fire. In this review we characterized the health risks caused by mycotoxins found in food, pet food and feed. Agriopoulou S., Stamatelopoulou E., Varzakas T. Advances in occurrence, importance, and mycotoxin control strategies: Prevention and detoxification in foods. Conceptualization, J.K.-P. and W.B. [34][4] Several mycotoxins reduce milk yield when ingested by dairy cattle. WebDiseases caused by mycotoxins are called mycotoxicoses, and are characterized by diffuse syndromes. Ergot alkaloids have been used pharmaceutically. The U.N. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has regulated and enforced limits on concentrations of mycotoxins in foods and feed industries since 1985. The functioning of the system is based on the collection and quick dissemination of information about food products and feeds. Other removal methods include physical separation, washing, milling, nixtamalization, heat-treatment, radiation, extraction with solvents, and the use of chemical or biological agents. The conclusion is that mycotoxins can pass into breast milk and maternal exposure to smoking may have an impact on this situation. Laurain J., Tardieu D., Matard-Mann M., Rodriguez M.A., Guerre P. Fumonisin B1 accumulates in chicken tissues over time and this accumulation was reduced by feeding algo-clay. Occurrence of environmental pollutants in foodstuffs: A review of organic vs. conventional food. Mohammedi-Ameur S., Dahmane M., Brera C., Kardjadj M., Ben-Mahdi M.H. Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast is characterized by similar properties, mainly OTA. Among farm animals, pigs are the most susceptible to the accumulation of OTA, whose tissue deposition occurs as follows: kidney > liver > muscle > fat. Comprehensive study on the occurrence of mycotoxins and their producing fungi during the maize production cycle in Spain. The cause of dog poisoning with roquefortine may also be ripening cheese with blue mold. Fungi-induced postharvest diseases are the leading causes of food loss and waste. The main species responsible for the production of this mycotoxin is the fungus Aspergillus carbonarius (Bainier) Thom, which grows on the fruit of grapes during harvest [39,40]. AF can be found mainly in peanuts, maize seeds, and oilseeds. It should be emphasized that ZEN and AFB1 exceeded the MRLs of 14% and 2%, respectively, in the samples of frozen chicken muscles. Although over 500 mycotoxins have been identified, those of importance in feed safety are primarily produced by the five fungal genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps and Alternaria [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]. OTA is very resistant to thermal treatment and stable in an acid environment. Despite this, caution should be paid because low levels of mycotoxins do not eliminate the risk in dog food, and long-term daily consumption of even small amounts of mycotoxins can lead to slow damage to the animals body and the development of many diseases, including cancer. The research of Macias-Montes et al. Kriszt R., Krifaton C., Szoboszlay S., Cserhati M., Kriszt B., Kukolya J. Mycotoxins are natural, toxic compounds produced by certain types of fungi (mold). This is especially possible for companion animals, especially dogs and cats. They consume organic matter wherever humidity and temperature are sufficient. Chen S.S., Li Y.H., Lin M.F. Due to the frequent mycotoxin contamination of the raw materials used in these processes (flour, malt, grape must), the possibility of fermentation using strains is considered, which, apart from the appropriate technological features, show the ability to reduce the toxin content, thus increasing the safety of the obtained product. [5] The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that are commonly detected as natural contaminants in agricultural commodities worldwide. [77], analyzing frozen and fresh meat and offal (liver, kidneys), showed the presence of mycotoxins (AFB1, OTA, ZEN, FB1, and DON) in all samples. [102]. [24] The infestation of S. chartarum in buildings containing gypsum board, as well as on ceiling tiles, is very common and has recently become a more recognized problem. Innovative methods include the use of zeolite, antioxidants and bacteria. The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis and the Bat White-nose syndrome are due to obligatory fungal Stachybotrys spores in animal studies have been shown to cause lung hemorrhaging, but only at very high concentrations. In the case of already harvested raw materials, sorting them is the safest method of fighting mycotoxins. Many fungi live in harmony with humans, rarely causing diseases. Dermatotoxinsdamaging mucous membranes and skin; Cardiotoxinscausing cardiovascular diseases; Neurotoxinsaffecting the central nervous system; Immunotoxinsnegatively affecting the immunological system; Micohormonesnegatively influencing hormonal regulation; Carcinogenic compoundsleading to the formation of neoplasms. Examples of mycotoxins causing human and animal illness include aflatoxin, citrinin, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and ergot alkaloids such as ergotamine. One mold species may produce many different mycotoxins, and several species may produce the same mycotoxin. [8] Because mycotoxins weaken the receiving host, they may improve the environment for further fungal proliferation. Research indicates that some modified mycotoxins can be converted into parent mycotoxins as a consequence of digestive processes in humans and animals, which can lead to adverse health effects. To minimize risk, dog food manufacturers should select grain types that are less susceptible to mycotoxins [104]. Recent findings indicate that lower doses (studies usually involve high doses) can cause these symptoms. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Contact with DON in humans causes: vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, dizziness and fever [44,45]. Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxins can be found in many foods consumed by humans and animals. Their synthesis depends largely on the properties of fungal strains (physiological, genetic, and biochemical), as well as external factors, such as humidity and temperature. Many of these clinical features can partly mimic or be similar to classic neurologic disorders including pain syndromes, movement disorders, delirium, dementia, and disorders of balance and coordination. It is estimated that about 25% of the worlds harvest may be contaminated with mycotoxins. The study of milk substitutes [80] found the presence of 17 mycotoxins, including AFB1, ZEN, DON, and FB1. The most common symptoms are abdominal pain, vomiting, hemorrhage, liver damage, growth and development impairment, immunodeficiency, pulmonary and limb edema, weakening of blood vessels, and coma [22,23,24,25,26]. They are most often produced by fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria (Figure 1). Where conditions are right, fungi proliferate into colonies and mycotoxin levels become high. Tian Y., Tan Y., Yan Z., Liao Y., Chen J., De Boevre M., De Saeger S., Wu A. Antagonistic and detoxification potentials of trichoderma isolates for control of zearalenone (ZEN) producing Fusarium graminearum. Modified mycotoxins may be a particularly significant risk. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, [33], Mycotoxins in animal fodder, particularly silage, can decrease the performance of farm animals and potentially kill them. Before As mentioned earlier, mycotoxins contaminate many plant-based products. They inhibit protein synthesis, damage macrophage systems, inhibit particle clearance of the lung, and increase sensitivity to bacterial endotoxin. Mycotoxin exposure can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans when found in animal feeds and food products, and at lower concentrations can affect animal They most often contaminate products of animal (beef, pork, poultry, lamb, fish, game meat, milk) and plant origin (cereals, processed cereals, vegetables, nuts). Peivasteh-Roudsari L., Pirhadi M., Shahbazi R., Eghbaljoo-Gharehgheshlaghi H., Sepahi M., Mirza Alizadeh A., Jazaeri S. Mycotoxins: Impact on health and strategies for prevention and detoxification in the food chain. Payros D., Mnard S., Laffitte J., Neves M., Tremblay-Franco M., Luo S., Fouche E., Snini S.P., Theodorou V., Pinton P., et al. [29] Red chilli, black pepper, and dry ginger were found to be the most contaminated spices. [31], There were outbreaks of dog food containing aflatoxin in North America in late 2005 and early 2006,[32] and again in late 2011. Abarca, M. L., M. R. Bragulat, G. Sastella, and F. J. Cabanes.1994. Their occurrence is favored by factors commonly present in our environment, including humidity. The name is derived from the Greek word mycos (fungi) and Latin toxicum (poison). Tolerance varies widely among various species of warm-blooded Deoxynivalenol exposure assessment in young children in Tanzania. [22] The bulk of this article is about mycotoxins that are found in microfungi other than poisons from mushrooms or macroscopic fungi.[15]. ; data curation, J.K.-P. and W.B. Poultry suffering from chronic forms of mycotoxins were able to assimilate nutrients more efficiently than poultry that consumed similar feed free from the analyzed additives. Many of the standards for the method performance analysis for mycotoxins is set by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). [45], The symptoms of mycotoxicosis depend on the type of mycotoxin; the concentration and length of exposure; as well as age, health, and sex of the exposed individual. Uhlig S., Ivanova L., Voorspoels P., Fste C.K.