the effects of malnutrition during critical periods in pregnancy:

The locomotor activity after a systemic amphetamine injection was tested in an open field arena as described elsewhere22. Lancet (London, England) 387, 13771396, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(16)30054-x (2016). Psychological bulletin 79, 398407 (1973). 1B). https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/social-determinants-health/interventions-resources/food-insecurity, Shankar, P., Chung, R., & Frank, D. (2017). It contains 26% protein, 38% fat and 1% carbohydrates with total energy 22kJ/g or 5.25kcal/g76,77. & Chauhan, S. P. Obesity Before, During, and After Pregnancy: A Review and Comparison of Five National Guidelines. The apparatus was consisted of four identical two-way shuttle boxes (model H10-11 M-SC; Coulbourn Instruments). However, with the United Nations initiative to secure healthy diets, there is growing potential to eliminate the burdens of food insecurity which directly complicate child development during the critical period. Food insecurity and child health. Diabetes 61, 28332841 (2012). Weinstein, J. J. et al. Article Does maternal body mass index during pregnancy influence risk of schizophrenia in the adult offspring? Risk factors and outcomes of maternal obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy. (F) %Prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle reflex: the line plot shows the percent PPI as a function of different pulses (100, 110 and 120dB) and the corresponding prepulse intensities (+6, +12 and +18 DB above the background 65dB). (B) HFD preference test: The bar graph shows the mean HFD preference in percentage in the PC and CTR offspring. (Thomas et al., 2019) Only three years prior, the prevalence of food insecurity in family households was 14% lower, but now, with the accelerating COVID-19 pandemic, the number of children and their families being pushed into undernourishment escalates by the millions. Taken together, our data indicate a hypodopaminergic state in the striatal regions, which is more prominent in late gestation MHFD exposed offspring. Offspring from all groups were exposed to chow and water ad libitum throughout their life. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help On the other hand, both male and female Lact offspring show higher basal DA levels in the Nac and dSTR compared to CTR offspring. PubMed Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 288, R11221128, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00335.2004 (2005). With the increasing correlations between food insecurity and deficiencies in child development during the critical period, there is no miscalculation of the severity of malnutrition. Latent inhibition was tested only in the MHFD lactation groups since this groups showed schizophrenia-related behavioral abnormalities81 compared to the other MHFD offspring groups. Offspring from all groups are maintained on standard chow diet from weaning and throughout adulthood. Further, the PE-lactation offspring group showed significant higher avoidance responses compared to PE-CTR offspring (P<0.0008). & Baldessarini, R. J. Besides other significant changes, the higher DA levels in the Nac and dSTR together with lower DOPAC and HVA levels indicate a baseline hyperdopaminergic state in the striatal regions which might play a crucial role in the emergence of positive symptoms of schizophrenia in this offspring group. can be remediated later in pregnancy with a nutritious diet C.) can be offset by vitamin and mineral supplementation D.) are irreversible A.) 2021 Jul 18;13(7):2457. doi: 10.3390/nu13072457. Hochner, H. et al. In the lactation (Lact) group, mothers are fed HFD only during the lactation period. In the PPI test, the %PPI increased as a function of higher levels of prepulse intensities in both groups (main effect of prepulse intensity, F2,100=49.64; P<0.0001) as shown in Fig. The position of the tubes was changed between sessions to minimize side preference. Peri-conceptional obesogenic exposure induces sex-specific programming of disease susceptibilities in adult mouse offspring. In the subcutaneous adipose tissue, neither the lipid droplets number nor their size differed between the groups. Heres how to fix the problem. In the sucrose preference test, offspring from both groups preferred the sucrose solution in the higher concentrations to water (main effect of solution, F1,34=21.59; P<0.0001 and concentrations, F2,68=38.05; P<0.0001). No difference in DA levels was detected between PC and CTR offspring in all six-brain regions. Conversely, we observe that 3 weeks preconception HFD exposure does not affect the metabolic health of the offspring. 5D). Preconception MHFD exposure does not induce any changes in DA levels in the offspring. Maternal high-fat diet during gestation or suckling differentially affects offspring leptin sensitivity and obesity. A significant interaction of group and pre-exposure was revealed (F1,56=10.04; P<0.004). (Chilton et al., 2007) This stage of human growth, which spans from in-utero through the age of two, involves integral brain development through the growth of dendrites, the production of axons, and the rapid connection of new neural synapses in response to nutritional factors, environmental circumstances, and early exposures. As outlined by numerous health care and nutritional organizations, the primary aim must be to establish an effective alternative to undersupplied food banks, the most competent of which is the enhancement of public resources by fortifying federal investment in food assistance and income support programs such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and WIC. D.P.-R. designed the methodology and conceptualization of the project. USA Today. Sarker, G. et al. An official website of the United States government. The animals from both treatment groups were divided into two conditions: pre-exposure (PE) and non-pre-exposure (NPE). & Stickland, N. C. A maternal junk food diet in pregnancy and lactation promotes an exacerbated taste for junk food and a greater propensity for obesity in rat offspring. 4F). 75, Suppl. In addition, higher DA and its metabolites levels are detected in the VTA of both gestational HFD exposed offspring, suggesting a compensatory mechanism in this region to overcome altered DA levels in the striatum. No difference in litter size was detected between the different treatment groups (Supplementary Information, Table1). Copyright 2020 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. To analyze the % PPI, a 2233 (maternal exposuresexpulse levelprepulse level) for the preconception and the lactation groups and a 3233 (maternal exposuresexpulse levelprepulse level) repeated measures ANOVA for the gestation group were used. To avoid sex78 and litter79 effect, maximum one male and one female offspring from each litter of every treatment groups were allocated in each behavioral, metabolic and neurochemical experiment. 1D). Recent research from human case control and cohort studies provides a positive correlation between pre-pregnancy BMI or gestational weight gain and increased predisposition towards schizophrenia in the adult offspring54,55. Disclaimer. The HFD, sucrose, and alcohol preference tests were conducted chronologically with the same set of animals with a wash time period of at least 7 days in between tests. Total caloric restriction during early pregnancy followed by adequate nutrition for the remainder of gestation, is particularly linked to cardiovascular and metabolic disease risks during adulthood. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Central nervous insulin resistance: a promising target in the treatment of metabolic and cognitive disorders? Nutritional diet during breastfeeding are critical for the child health since the flavours of breastmilk experienced by some infants may be influenced by the diet of the mother45. Not much is known on the negative or positive effects of food taboos on pregnancy outcomes of Zulu women. In general, NPE mice showed increased avoidance response learning compared to the PE group (main effect of pre-exposure, F1,56=8.09; P<0.007). Adult animals from all groups were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation. Obesity reviews: an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 14, 218 (2013). As maternal health is compromised by an insufficient diet both in quality and quantity due to the scarcity of food, the overall growth of the child is inhibited. A reduction in avoidance responses in the pre-exposed (PE) compared to the non pre-exposed (NPE) groups constituted the LI phenomenon. Further, when offspring were given a free choice to drink from water or alcohol solution, offspring from both groups consumed more alcohol than water as indicated by a main effect of solution (F1,28=33.540; P<0.001). The escalating growth of obesity is a global threat to the health and prosperity irrespective of age and sex. Br J Nutr 98, 843851 (2007). In the VTA, ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of group (F4,71=6.14; P<0.0004) and sex (F1,71=4.86; P<0.04), indicating that MHFD exposure at different time periods altered the levels of dopamine in this region. 1A). Our findings corroborate earlier studies showing that HFD exposure during gestation alone or defined periods of gestation induces minor or no alterations of plasma glucose, insulin and leptin levels with no changes in body mass or adiposity in the offspring27,37. Scientific Reports (Sci Rep) Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology 291, R768778, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00138.2006 (2006). Such findings in human studies are also documented in rodent models of schizophrenia52,53. 4G). All values are means.e.m. Nutritional and metabolic exposure during critical periods in early human and animal development may have long-term programming effects in adulthood. Grissom, N., Bowman, N. & Reyes, T. M. Epigenetic programming of reward function in offspring: a role for maternal diet. We further evaluated the effects of preconception MHFD on sensorimotor gating as assessed by prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle in adulthood. (Martin-Gronert & Ozanne, 2006) During pregnancy, the nursing placenta and growing fetus demand a significant quantitative and qualitative increase in nutritional requirements which are naturally derived from protein-rich eggs, fish, and meat, produce such as citric fruits and leafy greens, complex carbohydrates, and dairy as well as supplements of iron, folic acid, and calcium. Percentage of sucrose intake was calculated by the following formula=[sucrose consumed in ml/ (sucrose+water consumed in ml]*100. 2B). N=(46m, 46f) CTR and N=(24m, 26f) PC. Rodriguez, A. Maternal pre-pregnancy obesity and risk for inattention and negative emotionality in children. It is now crucial to identify the specific developmental time window, which is most vulnerable to such programming effects of MHFD exposure. Exercise for pregnant women with gestational diabetes for improving maternal and fetal outcomes. Biol Psychiatry 81, 3142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.03.2104 (2017). The insulin-signaling pathway of the pancreatic islet is impaired in adult mice offspring of mothers fed a high-fat diet. Hormones and behavior 76, 153161, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.04.008 (2015). This interpretation is in line with studies showing that elevated baseline striatal DA levels and increased presynaptic DA release in the Nac and dSTR following a challenge injection of amphetamine is correlated with positive symptoms of schizophrenia in drug nave schizophrenic patients62,68 as well as in other neurodevelopmental rodent models of schizophrenia69. In A. Barnhill, M. Budolfsen, & T.Doggett (Eds. We have shown in our previous studies that mice exposed to a MHFD for a total period of 9 weeks (3 weeks prior to conception, 3 weeks during gestation and 3 weeks during lactation) show an obesogenic and metabolic syndrome like traits and a wide range of behavioral alterations such as increased anxiety21, enhanced sensitivity to palatable foods and drugs of abuse22, and age dependent cognitive deficits18. Similarly, 2 months preconception HFD exposure does not alter motivational behaviors tested in progressive ratio task and sucrose preference tests in the rat offspring47. As their needs became integrated into everyday life, community mobilization increased; the husbands assumed the responsibility of allocating resources while the community improved accessibility to suppliers. International journal of obesity (2005) 32, 550557 (2008). Rodriguez, A. et al. The levels of DOPAC were also influenced by MHFD exposure at critical periods depending on different brain regions. (2007). Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology of India 66, 335339, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13224-016-0918-7 (2016). Frontiers in genetics 2, 27, https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2011.00027 (2011). For all the experiments, five independent cohort of offspring were employed. All behavioral experiments were carried out during the dark phase (between 9 am to 5pm) under red light or under dim light illumination. The tissue processing was performed according to the standard protocol in a tissue processor (STP 120; Microm). To index the conditioned avoidance learning, the mean latent response across consecutive 10-trail blocks was calculated for analysis. Hallschmid, M. & Schultes, B. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 16, 307320 (2014). The double burden of malnutrition consists of both undernutrition and overweight and obesity, as well as diet-related noncommunicable diseases. Laruelle, M. Imaging synaptic neurotransmission with in vivo binding competition techniques: a critical review. National Library of Medicine Dahlhoff, M. et al. Neuroscience 176, 225236 (2011). Psychopharmacology 214, 339351 (2011). Sullivan, E. L., Riper, K. M., Lockard, R. & Valleau, J. C. Maternal high-fat diet programming of the neuroendocrine system and behavior. folate A low intake of _______ increases the likelihood that an infant will be born with a neural tube defect. A significant group and sex interaction (F4,76=2.53; P<0.05) was also detected in hypothalamic DA levels where EG male (P<0.02) and LG female (P<0.05) offspring showed lower DA levels compared to control offspring (Fig. (a) Describe placental development and the importance of critical periods. PubMed Google Scholar. PubMed Journal of perinatal medicine 42, 8391, https://doi.org/10.1515/jpm-2013-0091 (2014). Vitamins and minerals are essential for human health and development. 5F). Offspring body size and metabolic profile - effects of lifestyle intervention in obese pregnant women. All the experiments were conducted when the mice reached adulthood (PND 70110). Vucetic, Z., Kimmel, J., Totoki, K., Hollenbeck, E. & Reyes, T. M. Maternal high-fat diet alters methylation and gene expression of dopamine and opioid-related genes. Opposed to our findings, an earlier study report that 34 weeks preconception MHFD exposure increases weight gain, adiposity and hepatic lipid droplet size in the adult offspring26. Prakash, N. & Wurst, W. Development of dopaminergic neurons in the mammalian brain. (2) Late gestation HFD exposure induces most features of addictive-like behaviors that is further substantiated by the presence of lower striatal DA levels. Further, a higher DOPAC levels were observed in the VTA of LG offspring compared to CTR (P<0.003) and EG (P<0.0004) offspring (Fig. (F) LI-active avoidance: the line plot shows the percentage of avoidance responses made during 100-trial test sessions in the conditioned two-way active avoidance paradigm. One of the major findings in the current study is the clear dissociation of behavioral phenotypes in the offspring exposed to MHFD at different time windows. & Meyer, U. Behavioral animal models of antipsychotic drug actions. 1 - Karger Publishers (Fakhri & Tzouvala, 2020; Shankar et al., 2017) As defined by the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, (2020) food insecurity is a severe form of deprivation caused by an interruption in food intake or irregular eating patterns because of a lack of money and other resources. Differential effects of post-weaning juvenile stress on the behaviour of C57BL/6 mice in adolescence and adulthood. We observe that only Lact offspring show significant weight gain from weaning throughout adulthood compared to CTR offspring. The Journal of nutrition 139, 412s416s, https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.108.097014 (2009). American journal of physiology. Together, these findings indicated that a disruption of LI was evident in Lact offspring. Association of food insecurity with childrensbehavioral, emotional, and academic outcomes: a systematic review. Malnutrition refers to deficiencies or excesses in nutrient intake, imbalance of essential nutrients or impaired nutrient utilization.
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